• Introduction
• Arguments and Modifiers
• Argument Order
• Clause Types
• Comparatives
• Coordination
• Demonyms
• Determiners
• Imperatives
• Interjections
• Possessives
• Pronouns
• Punctuation
• Questions
• Specific Lexical Items
• Tokenization
• request update

Core Argument or Not?

Core arguments of verbs and nouns are analyzed as part of the argument structure. Notably, the location argument of verbs of position and the direction argument of verbs of movement are arguments. Sometimes it is hard to tell whether a locational/directional PP is a core argument or not. Here we provide specific answers based on looking at examples from CCGrebank.

The following verbs and their translations have location/direction core arguments: stand, go, take. Exception: when the location/direction is expressed by an adverb such as there, then that is analyzed as a modifier.

The following verbs and their translations cannot have location/direction arguments: hide, have fun, notice.

The following nouns and their translations cannot have location/direction arguments: place.

A prepositional phrase headed by about or its translation, indicating the topic of something (like information, or a book), is analyzed as a core argument.

The verb translate and its translations can have core arguments for the language into which something is translated.

Location PPs attaching to nouns, as in a book on the table, are not treated as core arguments but as modifiers.

In look like, like heads a prepositional core argument.

Argument of Verb or Noun?

Sometimes an argument could be the argument of a verb, or of another argument of the verb. As a general rule, when in doubt, we favor verb arguments in these cases. Here is an example with a compound verb:

And here is an example with a non-compound verb:

Verbal Constructions with Particles and Prepositions

Similarly, when a verbal construction contains both a particle and a preposition, we prefer to treat them as separate arguments of the verb rather than attaching one to the other:

VP or S Modifier?

If the subject intervenes between a clausal modifier and the rest of the clause, then the modifier is analyzed as a sentence modifier. Otherwise, it is analyzed as a VP modifier. For example:

This also holds for conditional clauses. For example:

If the modified clause is a coordination, attach at the S level instead:

Modification of Main Verb or Modal/Auxiliary?

When the modal or auxiliary verb of a clause does not intervene between a VP modifier and the main verb, then the VP modifier modifies the main verb rather than the modal or auxiliary. Exception: negation adverbs modify the modal or auxiliary.

Modification of Adjective or Copula?

Adverbials appearing in a copula phrase with an adjective can modify the adjective or the copula. Degree adverbials such as very modify the adjective. Quantificational adverbials such as always, negation adverbs such as not, temporal adverbials such as today, etc., modify the copula.

NPs Acting as Modifiers

Temporal NPs can act as VP (or sentence) modifiers. Following CCGrebank, if these NPs consist of an adjective followed by a noun, they are analyzed as in the following example:

If they consist of a determiner followed by an N expression, only the determiner gets a non-standard category:

Direct Speech

Speech verbs have fully specified argument categories, e.g., S[intj] or S[dcl], not S. For example:

Subjects of Auxiliary and Modal Verbs

In constructions with auxiliary and modal verbs, the subject is an argument of the auxiliary/modal. Other arguments are arguments of the embedded verb.

Dativus commodi

We treat dativus commodi as part of the verb’s argument structure (not every verb allows it):

Noun Postmodifiers and Premodifiers

Postmodifiers combine with a noun before the premodifiers:

Verbal Arguments

Verbal arguments of verbs and prepositions are analyzed as VPs unless they have a determiner, in which case they are treated as nominalized (thus, as nouns). For example:

The Italian di and da are treated as a complementizers rather than prepositions (so get category (S[to]\NP)/(S[b]\NP)) when they head verbal arguments.

Adverbial Arguments

Adverbs that appear as arguments (e.g., of a preposition) get category S[adj]\NP. For example:

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives

Adverbs modifying adjectives are just that: modifiers of adjectives. When the adjective is attributive, the adverb thus has category (N/N)/(N/N) (possible with different slash directions).

Participles Acting as Prenominal Modifiers

Participles pre-modifying a noun are analyzed as attribute adjectives:

Italian Noun-noun-compounds

In Italian, the dependent in a noun-noun compound is often realized as a prepositional phrase. We treat this phrase as a modifer of the head noun, not as an argument.